Initial attempts to fund the relief effort through issuing bonds failed due to the Japanese invasion of Manchuria, which had caused the bond market to collapse. Fang Choumei. The Yangtze River, the longest river in Asia, also is one of the world’s major waterways. Contemporary studies conducted by John Lossing Buck allege that at least 150,000 people had drowned in the first few months of the flood, with hundreds of thousands more dying of starvation and disease over the following year. [41] Contemporary media reports contain numerous descriptions of such behavior see for example Guo Jingrong, Guo wen zhoukan 8, no. Wuhan: Hubei Provincial Archives, 1999. The survival of members of flood-stricken communities cannot be explained simply by examining charity and relief. Great Leap famine, 1958-62 (Urban Perspective) Lauri Paltemaa. Although there are no remaining prints of this film, the original the script still survives. The relief effort become much more difficult following the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in the autumn of 1931, which caused the Chinese bond market to collapse. "[30], In 1953, after the end of the Chinese Civil War, Chinese Communist Party leader Mao Zedong traveled to areas neighboring the Yangtze River to promote the Three Gorges Dam flood control project. “Xinyang yu Quanzheng: 1931 nian Gaoyou ‘Da Chenghuang’ Fengchao zhi Yanjiu. The biggest killer was disease, which accounted for 70% of all fatalities. “Climate Changes and Flood/Drought Risk in the Yangtze Delta, China, During the Past Millennium.” Quaternary International 176-177 (2008): 62-69. Wuchang xianzhi (Gazetteer of Wuchang County). Wuhan wenshi ziliao (Wuhan Literary and Historical Materials). Communism in China: As Reported from Hankow in 1932. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1987. [30] The relief effort was also described as an important progressive step in establishing the legitimacy of the new government and undermining the threat from Communism. London: Jonathan Cape, 1935. [24] As the scale of the disaster became apparent, the government established the National Flood Relief Commission (NFRC) under the auspices Song Ziwen (T.V. Shijiazhuang: Hebei Renmin Chubanshe, 2001 [1933]. Steve Harnsberger, the grandson of Thomas Harnsberger, wrote in 2007, "The 1931 flood killed 15 times the number of people lost in the Indonesian tsunamis of December 2004, and yet scarcely a word has been written of it. Zhongguo jiuhuang shi (A History of Chinese Famine Relief). [40] Refugees who headed to cities earned money by renting out their family sampans as water taxis. Xia Mingfang. The 1931 flood is indeed regarded as one … Shanghai: Shanghai tushuguan cangshu, 1932. At the time of the floods, China was attacking itself. [12] In many areas inundation continued well into the autumn, meaning that it was not possible to plant a secondary insurance crop in the winter. Source: The Report of the National Flood Relief Commission The winter of 1930-1931 had been particularly harsh, leaving large deposits of snow and ice in the upper catchments of rivers. – and published a volume entitled Selected Archival Materials on the 1931 Flood Disaster in Hubei (Hubei sheng yijiusanyi nian shuizai dang’an xuanbian). “Transformation of the Water Regime: State, Society and Ecology of the Jianghan Plain in Late Imperial and Modern China.” Unpublished Thesis. Song Jie. These storms dumped the equivalent of one and a half times the average annual volume of precipitation in a single month. Li, Lillian M. Fighting Famine in North China: State, Market, and Environmental Decline, 1690s-1990s. Although in most areas floodwater had receded by the winter, the problems of waterlogging, infrastructure damage, and refugee displacement continued well into the next spring. The floods killed crops, washed out grain storage facilities, leveled houses, and destroyed roads. London and New York: Routledge Curzon, 2003. The 1931 China floods, or the 1931 Yangtze–Huai River floods, were a series of floods that occurred from June to August 1931 in the Republic of China, hitting major cities such as Wuhan, Nanjing and beyond, which eventually culminated into a dike breach along Lake Gaoyou on August 25, 1931. The 1931 flood produced a vast range of Chinese and English language source material. Sha Qingqing. 13. Vol. “Fangxun xianduan longwangmiao. The flood caused the value of labour, land, and draft animals to plummet at the same time that the price of grain increased rapidly. For a criticial view of the Guomindang’s role in the conflict see Cheng et al. The Yellow River and Grand Canal also experienced major flooding, whilst there were lessor inundations from as far south as the Pearl River (Zhu Jiang), which flows through the city of Guangzhou (Canton), to as far north as the Songhua and Yalu Rivers, which flow to the north of Korea. Government Responses: The 1931 flood was one of the first major tests from the Nanjing Government, which had established tentative control over much of the Republic of China in 1927. Finally, Chris Courtney has examined popular religious interpretations of the 1931 flood in the city of Wuhan. Bourdillon” February 23rd 1932 John Hope Simpson Papers, Folder 6 (i), Balliol College Archives, Oxford; North China Herald, “Wuhan Cities Faced With Famine Conditions” August 25th 1931. Since the 1980s Chinese historians have adopted a much more nuanced approach to the history of disasters. When the city itself was inundated in the early summer and after a catastrophic dike failure at just before 6:00 AM on July 27,[20]:270 around 782,189 urban citizens and rural refugees were left homeless. (Herafter NFRC). Wu Yijin, William A. Gough, Jiang Tong, Wang Xuelei, and Jin Weibin. Eventually the region descended into hydraulic crisis, with low-level water control problems being punctuated by catastrophic flood disasters. [1] Although the flood affected much of the country the core disaster zone was concentrated in eight central provinces. Duration: 1 year. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 2014. It prevented relief agencies from distributing grain throughout the flood zone and delayed agricultural recovery. With no food, people were reduced to eating tree bark, weeds, and earth. [34] In another camp in Jiangxi, 2,476 of the 20,249 refugees died in just three months, constituting an annual mortality rate of 48.9%. Nanking: The University of Nanking, 1932. South China Morning Post 14,527 views The Yangtze and it's tributary system is also among the most flood-prone regions in the world, with historic floods that killed millions of Chinese. Outside the People’s Republic, O. Edmund Clubb’s Twentieth Century China contained one of the only analyses of the 1931 disaster. [36] John Hope Simpson, “Hope Simpson to F.B. The North China Herald Using contemporary media reports, Chinese historians led by Li Wenhai have calculated the death toll at 422,499. Guilty of Indigence: The Urban Poor in China, 1900-1953 . [32] Margherita Zanasi, Saving the Nation: Economic Modernity in Republican China (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 2006). There are three major rivers draining this area, the Yangtze, the Yellow, and the Huai. Forgotten China Flood of 1931 – The Most Devastating Flood of the 20 th century,. [2] On the effect of climate on flooding see Zhang Qiang, Marco Gemmer and Chen Jiaqi , “Climate Changes and Flood/Drought Risk in the Yangtze Delta, China, During the Past Millennium,” Quaternary International 176-177 (2008): pp. In 1931 Central China experienced a devastating flood that inundated an area equivalent in size of England and half of Scotland, affected the lives of an estimated 52 million people, and killed as many as 2 million. (Faith and the fight for power: researching the 1931 ‘Beat the City God’ movement in Gaoyou )” Jindaishi Yanjiu 1 (2010). [8] On links between Yangzi floods and El Niño Southern Oscillation see for example Jiang Tong, Zhang Qiang, Zhu Deming and Wu Yijin, “Yangtze floods and droughts (China) and teleconnections with ENSO activities (1470–2003),” Quaternary International, no. 2 (2001). Ordinarily, the region experienced three periods of high water during the spring, summer and fall, respectively; however, in early 1931, there was a single continuous deluge. [26] Although Song Ziwen remained the nominal head of the NFRC, with China facing political instability and an ongoing Japanese invasion, much of the responsibility for the day to day running the relief effort was entrusted the John Hope Simpson, a British refugee expert sent by the League of Nations to assist with the relief effort. [42] Finally, Anne Lindbergh wrote a memoir describing her flight over the disaster zone, which also charts her husband’s failed attempt to provide medical supplies to flood refugees. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 2006. [28], In the aftermath of the flood the NFRC was heralded as a triumph of organisation over adversity. The 1931 Flood in China: An Economic Survey, (Nanking: The University of Nanking, 1932), p.8. The two figures cited most commonly are both problematic. A documentary on uncovering the history of the 1931 Great Flood in, This page was last edited on 9 December 2020, at 17:46. This week, we look back to 1931, when maybe the worst of China's recent floods inundated an area … In July of that year alone, nine cyclones hit the region, which was significantly above the average of two per year. David A. Pietz, Engineering the State: The Huai River and Reconstruction in Nationalist China, 1927-1937 (London: Routledge, 2002), p68. Kung Y.J. suggest that the true figure may have been closer to 53 million. Hubei shengzhi (Gazetteer of Hubei Province). [5] A popular high-end estimate of 3.7 to 4.0 million fatalities "enjoys great currency online, helping the 1931 flood to secure its position on sensationalist lists of the world’s deadliest disasters."[1]. Beijing: Zhongguo dianying chubanshe, 1996: pp. Beyond the core flood zone, areas as far south as Guangdong, as far north as Manchuria, and as far west as Sichuan were also inundated. [9] The high-water mark recorded on 19 August at Hankou in Wuhan showed water levels 16 m (53 ft) above the average, an average of 1.7 m (5.6 ft) above the Shanghai Bund. Others employed more desperate strategies, begging, stealing, and engaging in prostitution. Da Gongbao – “Une cycle hydraulique en Chine: La province du Hubei du xvle au xixe siècles (A hydraulic cycle in China: The province of Hubei from the sixteenth through nineteenth centuries).” Bulletin de l’école Française d’Extreme Orient 68 (1980): 261–288. Sign in to Alchetron. Hanyang xianzhi (Gazetteer of Hanyang County). Heavy snowstorms in the winter were followed by a spring thaw and heavy rains that raised river levels significantly. – “Water Calamities and Dike Management in the Jianghan Plain in the Qing and the Republic.” Late Imperial China 27, no. This survey offers a wealth of information for economic historians. Refugees had been arriving in the city of Wuhan since the late spring. [17] The disaster also caused an economic shock with the price of vital commodities rising rapidly. The Shanghai-based Christian periodical The Chinese Recorder offers particular insight into the involvement of missionaries in the relief effort. [20] Ka-Che Yip, “Disease, Society and the State: Malaria and Healthcare in Mainland China,” in Disease, Colonialism, and the State: Malaria in Modern East Asian History, ed. [29] The project was restarted in the 1980s, and the hydroelectric Three Gorges Dam began full operation in 2012, becoming the world's largest power station in terms of installed capacity. [20] Growing numbers of freshwater snails caused a spike in the infection rate of an endemic wetland disease called schistosomiasis. [13] Historians since have suggested that the true number may have been as many as 53 million. This was based upon a broad statistical survey of the flood zone conducted by a team from the University of Nanjing under the leadership of the renowned agricultural economist John Lossing Buck. Its purpose was both to discredit the deposed Guomindang regime and to highlight the supposed superiority of the Communist response to disasters. 1931 Chinese Floods. This is based the figure published in the first few pages of The Report of the National Flood Relief Commission, 1931-1932. History focused instead on other disasters that year. “The Floods of China, a National Disaster.” Journal of Geography 31 (January/December 1932): 199-206. Tens of thousands died in their beds. [36], The effect of the US wheat loan was also somewhat more ambiguous than was recognised in official reports. Vol. Although Song Ziwen remained the head of the commission, the day-to-day running the relief effort was entrusted to John Hope Simpson, a British refugee expert. This was actually an estimate of the number of people drowned, which did not account for other flood-related deaths. The University of Nanjing study implies, although never explicitly states, a death toll of 625,000 for the first one hundred days of the flood. Topical Press Agency/Hulton Archive/Getty Images Even the famous aviators Charles Lindbergh and his wife Anne Lindbergh became involved, as they were commissioned to conduct an aerial survey of the flood zone. “Kuangliu (Raging Torrent)” Zhongguo wusheng dianying juben (Scripts of Chinese silent films). [8] However, due to a lack of funding and the chaos of the Second Sino-Japanese War and the subsequent Chinese Civil War, the various commissions were only able to construct small dams along the Yangtze River. The flood also provided a perfect habitat for mosquitoes, which gave rise to a malaria outbreak that eventually killed an estimated 300,000 people. “Combatting the Famine Dragon.” News Bulletin (Institute of Pacific Relations), April 1928. “Climatic Jumps in the Flood/Drought Historical Chronology of Central China.” Climate Dynamics 6 (1992): 153-160. [28] In the wake of the disaster, the government set up organizations such as the Huai River Conservancy Commission to address flood problems. [15] The ongoing conflict between the Guomindang and the Communist Party amplified the impact of the subsistence crisis. (Flood protection danger zone— the Dragon King Temple )” In Wuhan zhanggu, edited by Xiao Zhihua and Yan Changhong Yan. Having finally secured financial backing, the NFRC now had to distribute a huge quantity of relief throughout the disaster zone. Xinminbao Yet it was not the only response to the disaster. [10] Impoverished communities living in substandard housing were disproportionately vulnerable to these immediate disaster risks. China Changes. The floods inundated approximately 180,000 square kilometres (69,000 sq mi) – an area equivalent in size to England and half of Scotland, or the states of New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut combined. Mortality: 2 Million. Hubei sheng yijiusanyi nian shuizai dang’an xuanbian (Selected documents relating to the 1931 flood in Hubei Province). The flooding was so bad that the ground was still underwater when fall arrive… [4] A cholera epidemic in the subsequent year, from May 1932, was officially reported to have 31,974 deaths and 100,666 cases. Micah Muscolino. Picturing disaster: the 1931 wuhan flood china dialogue central floods chris courtney. As a response, prominent officials, including He Baohua, mayor of Wuhan, and Xia Douyin, then the local garrison commander and later governor of Hubei Province, held ritual ceremonies and kowtowed to the deity. 2373-2396. Central China flood, 1931. In 1931 Central China experienced a devastating flood that inundated an area equivalent in size of England and half of Scotland, affected the lives of an estimated 52 million people, and killed as many as 2 million. [27] The commission employed a range of Chinese and foreign experts, including figures such as famous epidemiologist Wu Liande, health minister Liu Ruiheng, public health worker John Grant, and hydraulic engineer Oliver Todd. : Harvard University Press, 1965). Nov 17, 2018 - The 1931 China Floods or the 1931 Yangtze-Huai River Floods. Those who retained access to food or credit were able to acquire the assets of their poorer neighbours at punishingly low crisis terms. Probably the most famous Chinese language response was a short story entitled Water (Shui) by the acclaimed left-wing novelist Ding Ling. Unfortunately the physical impact of the flood was so intense that even relatively strong urban dyke networks were compromised. On August 18, 1931, the Yangtze River in China peaked during a horrible flood inundated an area equivalent in size to England & half of Scotland. Alley, Rewi. Flooding was a perennial problem faced by those living in the Yangzi region. Clubb, O. Edmund. [11] The total economic losses were equal to one and a half year’s net income per family. A number of these can be found in a volume entitled The First Wife. Street Criers: A Cultural History of Chinese Beggars. 100,000 Hanoi and Red River Delta flood North Vietnam: 1971 7. Edward Galvin (New York: Sheed and Ward, 1967), p. 265. Y.-J. [9] Even well maintained dykes would have struggled to cope with this huge deluge. Agricultural Instability in China, 1931-1990: Weather, Technology, and Institutions. Long before any assistance has been provided by the central government, local elites in disaster-affected communities were already providing considerable relief to their fellow citizens. [20]:269–270 Large numbers gathered on flood islands throughout the city, with 30,000 sheltering on a railway embankment in central Hankou. “State Intervention in the Administration of a Hydraulic Infrastructure: The Example of Hubei Province in Late Imperial Times.” In The Scope of State Power in China, edited by Stuart R. Schram. Wuhan: Wuhan chubanshe, 1989. Flooding has been a perpetual problem in China. These periodic crises only began to abate when the state once again began to invest in the dyke network, thereby beginning the hydraulic cycle anew. Conditions such as dysentery, typhoid, and cholera, were disseminated directly through contaminated water or through insect vectors. Natural Disaster.. Over 100,000 people were killed in the immediate floods, but the survivors had problems of their own. The rivers of Huai, Yellow and Yangtze had managed to burst all the dikes and flood waters enveloped regions much bigger than the whole area of England. Ouyang Tieguang. The two figures cited most commonly are both problematic. [15][6] The Tanka people who traditionally live on boats among the Yangtze suffered greatly from the flooding. Outside China, the flood has received relatively little attention. [19] Xie Qianmao, Yijiusanyi nian Hankou dashui ji (The Great 1931 Hankou Flood) (Hankou: Hankou jianghan yinshuguan, 1931), p.107. Those who survived the initial hazard of inundation found themselves facing a severe subsistence crisis. Articles on more technical issues, such a hydrology and meteorology, can be found in specialist scientific periodicals such as Shuili. Whilst famine and malnutrition blighted the lives of flood-stricken communities, disease was by far the deadliest hazard. [2] During periods of excessive rainfall and poor hydraulic governance, however, rising water and neglected dykes allowed rivers and lakes to reclaim the plains that had been occupied by human beings.[3]. (2007): 101-103. In Saving the Nation Margherita Zanasi examines the flood relief effort as part of the broader policies of economic nationalism adopted by certain factions of the Guomindang in the early 1930s. [21] In total, flood related diseases caused 70% of reported fatalities amongst rural families, and 87% of deaths in refugee camps. Historians such as Zhang Bo and Kong Xiangcheng have focussed upon the role that local and national governments played in the relief effort. (Famine and Peasant Crisis Survival – The Middle Yangzi Region in the 1930s)” Huaihua xueyuan xuebao 7 (2006 ). Zhang Jiayan. 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